ADVANTAGES, RISKS AND DUAL‒USE CHALLENGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CBRN’S BIOLOGICAL SCENARIOS
Keywords:
CBRN threats; preparedness and response; nanotechnology; advantages, risks and dual-use challengesAbstract
Purpose: CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) threats, particularly biological agents, are inherently volatile and difficult to control. Their early detection, identification, mitigation and neutralization, specifically of those that are novel, engineered, or intentionally released, represent a major challenge. Nanotechnology offers promising, new tools and approaches to address these issues, with applications ranging from highly sensitive and selective detection platforms to smart materials and devices for identification, protection and mitigation, as well as advanced decontamination methods and technologies that could strengthen the preparedness and response in CBRN settings.
Design/Methods/Approach: A comprehensive scientific literature review was conducted using systematic content analysis and comparative assessment, emphasizing the advantages, risks, and dual-use implications of nanotechnology in the context of CBRN security.
Findings: The use of nanotechnology in CBRN systems can significantly improve the early threat detection, agent identification, treatment, environmental monitoring, safety and functionality of personal protective equipment, filtration systems, etc. Nonetheless, the same features that make these prevalent technologies beneficial, also, raise ethical dilemmas and safety concerns about their potential misuse. The engineered nanomaterials, for instance, could potentially be repurposed for hostile applications, including targeted delivery of biological toxins or gene-editing agents. Therefore, the implementation of nanotechnology in CBRN landscape must be balanced with responsible oversight and ethical considerations.
Originality/Value: The paper provides a multidisciplinary and integrative perspective of nanotechnology applications in CBRN scenarios, synthesizing the most notable and important scientific reports and discussions regarding the emerging capabilities, associated risks, and the need for strategic planning for the safe and ethical use of advanced materials and nanotechnology in CBRN.
References
Abbasinia, M., Karimie, S., Haghighat, M., & Mohammadfam, I. (2018). Application of Nanomaterials in Personal Respiratory Protection Equipment: A Literature Review. Safety, 4(4), 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety4040047
Abedinloo, R., Parvari, R., Cheraghi, Z., & Assari, M. J. (2025). Evaluating the effectiveness of personal protective equipment against engineered nanomaterials: A systematic review. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 41(5–6), 327–345. https://doi.org/10.1177/07482337251336897
Afrasiabi, S., Pourhajibagher, M., Raoofian, R., Tabarzad, M., & Bahador, A. (2020). Therapeutic applications of nucleic acid aptamers in microbial infections. Journal of Biomedical Science, 27(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12929-019-0611-0
Agrahari, P. A. J. R. A., Bhatia, A. K., Sexna, A. G., Pant, G., Singh, R. P., Mishra, R. R., & Mishra, V. K. (2016). Advance applications of nanotechnology in medicine. International Journal of Scientific Research, 7, 1284–1315.
Ahmadi, S., Warkiani, M. E., Rabiee, M., Iravani, S., & Rabiee, N. (2023). Carbon-based nanomaterials against SARS-CoV-2: Therapeutic and diagnostic applications. OpenNano, 10, 100121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onano.2023.100121
Arcos Rosero, W. A., Bueno Barbezan, A., Daruich de Souza, C., & Chuery Martins Rostelato, M. E. (2024). Review of advances in coating and functionalization of gold nanoparticles: From theory to biomedical application. Pharmaceutics, 16(2), 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16020255
Arora, P., Sindhu, A., Dilbaghi, N., Chaudhury, A., Rajakumar, G., & Rahuman, A. A. (2012). Nano-regenerative medicine towards clinical outcome of stem cell and tissue engineering in humans. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 16(9), 1991–2000. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1582-4934.2012.01534.x
Barrett-Catton, E., Ross, M. L., & Asuri, P. (2021). Multifunctional hydrogel nanocomposites for biomedical applications. Polymers, 13(6), 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060856
Barua, S., & Mitragotri, S. (2014). Challenges associated with penetration of nanoparticles across cell and tissue barriers: A review of current status and future prospects. Nano Today, 9(2), 223–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2014.04.008
Bhadra, J., Abdulkareem, A., & Al-Thani, N. (2019). Nanotechnology in decontamination. In Composite nanoadsorbents (pp. 119–137). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814132-8.00006-X
Bilge, S., & Sınağ, A. (2025). Gold nanoparticles for sensing and biosensing applications. In S. K. Khadheer Pasha, K. Deshmukh, & C. M. Hussain (Eds.), Micro and nano technologies: Gold nanoparticles, nanomaterials and nanocomposites (pp. 377–414). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15897-1.00010-8
Boppana, S. H., Kutikuppala, L. V. S., Sharma, S., C, M., Rangari, G., Misra, A. K., Kandi, V., Mishra, S., Singh, P. K., Rabaan, A. A., Mohapatra, R. K., & Kudrat-E-Zahan, M. (2024). Current approaches in smart nano-inspired drug delivery: A narrative review. Health Science Reports, 7(4), e2065. https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.2065
CDC. (2023). Other sterilization methods. In Disinfection and Sterilization Guideline. https://www.cdc.gov/infection-control/hcp/disinfection-sterilization/other-sterilization-methods.html
Chaturvedi, A., Tripathi, D., & Ranjan, R. (2025). Nano-enabled biosensors in early detection of plant diseases. Frontiers in Nanotechnology, 7, 1545792. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2025.1545792
Chen, L., Yang, D., Bian, X., Xia, Q., Chu, P. K., & Hu, T. (2025). Gold nanoparticle decorated flexible carbon cloth for sensitive detection of 2,6-pyridine dicarboxylic acid by surface-enhanced Raman scattering. Biomedical Optics Express, 16, 2198–2209. https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.16.002198
Christopher, G. W., Cieslak, T. J., Pavlin, J. A., & Eitzen, E. M., Jr. (1997). Biological warfare: A historical perspective. JAMA, 278(5), 412–417. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550050074041
Clemons, T. D., Singh, R., Sorolla, A., Chaudhari, N., Hubbard, A., & Iyer, K. S. (2018). Distinction between active and passive targeting of nanoparticles dictate their overall therapeutic efficacy. Langmuir, 34(50), 15343–15349. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b02946
Dadfar, S. M., Roemhild, K., Drude, N. I., von Stillfried, S., Knüchel, R., Kiessling, F., & Lammers, T. (2019). Iron oxide nanoparticles: Diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic applications. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 138, 302–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2019.01.005
Das, A., & Ali, N. (2021). Nanovaccine: An emerging strategy. Expert Review of Vaccines, 20(10), 1273–1290. https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2021.1984890
Das, M., Dhand, C., Sumana, G., Srivastava, A. K., Nagarajan, R., Nain, L., Iwamoto, M., Manaka, T., & Malhotra, B. D. (2011). Electrophoretic fabrication of chitosan-zirconium-oxide nanobiocomposite platform for nucleic acid detection. Biomacromolecules, 12(3), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm1013074
Das, M., Dhand, C., Sumana, G., Srivastava, A. K., Vijayan, N., Nagarajan, R., & Malhotra, B. D. (2011). Zirconia-grafted carbon nanotubes based biosensor for M. tuberculosis detection. Applied Physics Letters, 99, 123701. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3645664
De Luca, P., Chiodo, A., Macario, A., Siciliano, C., & Nagy, B. (2021). Semi-continuous adsorption processes with multi-walled carbon nanotubes for the treatment of water contaminated by an organic textile dye. Applied Sciences, 11(4), 1687. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041687
De Luca, P., Macario, A., Siciliano, C., & Nagy, B. (2022). Recovery of biophenols from olive vegetation waters by carbon nanotubes. Materials, 15(9), 2893. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15092893
De Luca, P., Nagy, B., & Macario, A. (2023). Nanomaterials used in the preparation of personal protective equipment (PPE) in the fight against SARS-CoV-2. Inorganics, 11(7), 294. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics11070294
De Pasquale, I., Lo Porto, C., Dell’Edera, M., Petronella, F., Agostiano, A., Curri, M. L., & Comparelli, R. (2020). Photocatalytic TiO₂-based nanostructured materials for microbial inactivation. Catalysts, 10(12), 1382. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10121382
Díez-Pascual, A. M. (2021). Carbon-based nanomaterials. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, 7726. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147726
Drakulić, D. R., Stanojlović, M. R., Nedeljković, N., Grković, I., Velickovic, N., Guševac, I., Mitrović, N. Lj., Buzadzic, I., & Horvat, A. (2015). Upregulation of nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1 and ecto-5-nucleotidase in rat hippocampus after repeated low-dose dexamethasone administration. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 55(4), 959–967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-014-0452-y
Drakulić, D. R., Velickovic, N., Stanojlović, M. R., Grković, I., Mitrović, N. Lj., Lavrnja, I., & Horvat, A. (2013). Low-dose dexamethasone treatment promotes the pro-survival signalling pathway in the adult rat prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 25(7), 605–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.12037
Egwu, C. O., Aloke, C., Onwe, K. T., Umoke, C. I., Nwafor, J., Eyo, R. A., Chukwu, J. A., Ufebe, G. O., Ladokun, J., Audu, D. T., Agwu, A. O., Obasi, D. C., & Okoro, C. O. (2024). Nanomaterials in drug delivery: Strengths and opportunities in medicine. Molecules, 29(11), 2584. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29112584
Emeihe, E. V., Nwankwo, E. I., Ajegbile, M. D., Olaboye, J. A., & Maha, C. C. (2024). Revolutionizing drug delivery systems: Nanotechnology-based approaches for targeted therapy. International Journal of Life Science Research Archive, 7(1), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.53771/ijlsra.2024.7.1.0060
Farmand, M., Jahanpeyma, F., Gholaminejad, A., Azimzadeh, M., Malaei, F., & Shoaie, N. (2022). Carbon nanostructures: A comprehensive review of potential applications and toxic effects. 3 Biotech, 12(8), 159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-022-03175-6
Gao, L., Meng, F., Yang, Z., Lafuente-Merchan, M., Fernández, L. M., Cao, Y., Kusamori, K., Nishikawa, M., Itakura, S., Chen, J., Huang, X., Ouyang, D., Riester, O., Deigner, H.-P., Lai, H., Pedraz, J. L., Ramalingam, M., & Cai, Y. (2024). Nano-drug delivery system for the treatment of multidrug-resistant breast cancer: Current status and future perspectives. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 179, 117327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117327
Gemmill, K. B., Deschamps, J. R., Delehanty, J. B., Susumu, K., Stewart, M. H., Glaven, R. H., Anderson, G. P., Goldman, E. R., Huston, A. L., & Medintz, I. L. (2013). Optimizing protein coordination to quantum dots with designer peptidyl linkers. Bioconjugate Chemistry, 24(2), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1021/bc300644p
Goldman, E. R., Clapp, A. R., Anderson, G. P., Uyeda, H. T., Mauro, J. M., Medintz, I. L., & Mattoussi, H. (2004). Multiplexed toxin analysis using four colors of quantum dot fluororeagents. Analytical Chemistry, 76(3), 684–688. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac035083r
Gopinath, S. C. B., Awazu, K., Fujimaki, M., Shimizu, K., & Shima, T. (2013). Correction: Observations of immuno-gold conjugates on influenza viruses using waveguide-mode sensors. PLOS ONE, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/annotation/7bb0ff7b-3527-4a42-a50a-ec81f108ac41
Grigorov, I., Pejić, S., Todorović, A., Drakulić, D., Veljković, F., Miletić Vukajlović, J., Bobić, K., Soldatović, I., Đurašević, S., Jasnić, N., Stanković, S., Glumac, S., Mihailović-Vučinić, V., & Milenković, B. (2023). Serum high-mobility group box 1 and heme oxygenase-1 as biomarkers in COVID-19 patients at hospital admission. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(17), 13164. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241713164
Guarise, C., Pasquato, L., De Filippis, V., & Scrimin, P. (2006). Gold nanoparticles-based protease assay. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(11), 3978–3982. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0509372103
Guidotti, M., Ranghieri, M., & Rossodivita, A. (2009). Nanosystems and CBRN threats: A resource worth exploiting, a potential worth controlling. In Pandemics and bioterrorism (NATO Science for Peace and Security Series – E: Human and Societal Dynamics, Vol. 62, pp. 117–126). IOS Press. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-60750-086-5-117
Hajishoreh, N. K., Jamalpoor, Z., Rasouli, R., Nezami Asl, A., Sheervalilou, R., & Akbarzadeh, A. (2023). The recent development of carbon-based nanoparticles as a novel approach to skin tissue care and management: A review. Experimental Cell Research, 433(2), 113821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexcr.2023.113821
Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Singh, R. P., Rab, S., & Suman, R. (2023). Applications of nanotechnology in medical field: A brief review. Global Health Journal, 7(2), 70–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glohj.2023.02.008
Huang, H. T., Lin, H. J., Huang, H. J., Huang, C. C., Lin, J. H., & Chen, L. L. (2020). Synthesis and evaluation of polyamine carbon quantum dots (CQDs) in Litopenaeus vannamei as a therapeutic agent. Scientific Reports, 10, 7343. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64325-5
IFRCRCS. (2023). Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) hazards. https://epidemics.ifrc.org/manager/disaster/chemical-biological-radiological-and-nuclear-cbrn-hazards
Inglesby, T. V., O’Toole, T., Henderson, D. A., Bartlett, J. G., Ascher, M. S., Eitzen, E., Toner, E. (2002). Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: Updated recommendations for management. JAMA, 287(17), 2236–2252. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.17.2236
Jannetto, P. J., Buchan, B. W., Vaughan, K. A., Ledford, J. S., Anderson, D. K., Henley, D. C., Quigley, N. B., & Ledeboer, N. A. (2010). Real-time detection of influenza A, influenza B, and respiratory syncytial virus A and B in respiratory specimens by use of nanoparticle probes. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 48(11), 3997–4002. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01118-10
Jin, X., Jin, X., Chen, L., Jiang, J., Shen, G., & Yu, R. (2009). Piezoelectric immunosensor with gold nanoparticles enhanced competitive immunoreaction technique for quantification of aflatoxin B1. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 24(8), 2580–2585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2009.01.014
Joksić, G., Mićić, M., Filipović, J. G., Drakulić, D. R., Stanojlović, M. R., Calija, B., Valenta-Šobot, A., Demajo, M., & Nilsson, R. (2017). Cell proliferation assay—Method optimisation for in vivo labeling of DNA in the rat forestomach. Acta Veterinaria-Beograd, 67(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1515/acve-2017-0001
Kargozar, S., & Mozafari, M. (2018). Nanotechnology and nanomedicine: Start small, think big. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5, 15492–15500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.04.155
Karmakar, A., Velasco, E., & Li, J. (2022). Metal-organic frameworks as effective sensors and scavengers for toxic environmental pollutants. National Science Review, 9(7), nwac091. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwac091
Karnwal, A., Samir, R., Sachan, I., Devgon, J. D., Pant, G., Panchpuri, M., Alshammari, A. A. M. B., Hossain, K., & Kumar, G. (2024). Gold nanoparticles in nanobiotechnology: From synthesis to biosensing applications. ACS Omega, 9(28). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c10352
Kiel, J. L., Holwitt, E. A., Parker, J. E., Vivekananda, J., & Franz, V. (2004). Nanoparticle-labeled DNA capture elements for detection and identification of biological agents. Proceedings of SPIE, 5617, Optically Based Biological and Chemical Sensing for Defence. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.566640
Kleo, K., Kapp, A., Ascher, L., & Lisdat, F. (2011). Detection of vaccinia virus DNA by quartz crystal microbalance. Analytical Biochemistry, 418(2), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2011.07.016
Kosal, M. E. (2010). The security implications of nanotechnology. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 66(4), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.2968/066004006
Kumar, D. (2005). Vanadium-Doped Acid-Prepared Mesoporous Silica: Synthesis, Characterization, and Catalytic Studies on the Oxidation of a Mustard Gas Analogue. Chemistry of Materials. https://doi.org/10.1021/CM051372F
Kumar, V. (2025). Solid lipid nanoparticles based drug delivery for major infectious diseases: A narrative review. Next Nanotechnology, 8, 100228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxnano.2025.100228
Kurul, F., Turkmen, H., Cetin, A. E., & Topkaya, S. N. (2025). Nanomedicine: How nanomaterials are transforming drug delivery, bio-imaging, and diagnosis. Next Nanotechnology, 7, 100129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxnano.2024.100129
Lai, H., Huang, R., Weng, X., Huang, B., Yao, J., & Pian, Y. (2024). Classification and applications of nanomaterials in vitro diagnosis. Heliyon, 10(11), e32314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32314
Laserax. (2025). Removal of surface contaminants: Laser vs. other methods. https://www.laserax.com/blog/removal-surface-contaminants
Lee, J., Brennan, M. B., Wilton, R., Rowland, C. E., Rozhkova, E. A., Forrester, S., Hannah, D. C., Carlson, J., Shevchenko, E. V., Schabacker, D. S., & Schaller, R. D. (2015). Fast, ratiometric FRET from quantum dot conjugated stabilized single chain variable fragments for quantitative botulinum neurotoxin sensing. Nano Letters, 15(10), 7161–7167. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03442
Lee, S. A., Hwang, D. C., Li, H. Y., Tsai, C. F., Chen, C. W., & Chen, J. K. (2016). Particle size-selective assessment of protection of European standard FFP respirators and surgical masks against particles—Tested with human subjects. Journal of Healthcare Engineering, 2016, 8572493. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8572493
Leung, W. W., & Sun, Q. (2020). Charged PVDF multilayer nanofiber filter in filtering simulated airborne novel coronavirus (COVID-19) using ambient nano-aerosols. Separation and Purification Technology, 245, 116887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116887
Li, H., Zhang, Y., Luo, Y., & Sun, X. (2011). Nano-C₆₀: A novel, effective, fluorescent sensing platform for biomolecular detection. Small, 7(11), 1562–1567. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201100068
Liang, D., Hsiao, B. S., & Chu, B. (2007). Functional electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds for biomedical applications. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 59, 1392–1412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2007.04.021
Lu, Y., Guan, S., Hao, L., Li, X., Zhang, X., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and photocatalytic degradation by TiO₂ photocatalyst coatings. Scientific Reports, 12, 16038. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-20459-2
Manju, K., Raj, S. N., Ranjini, H. K., Nayaka, S. C., Ashwini, P., Satish, S., Nagendra Prasad, M. N., Chouhan, R. S., & Baker, S. (2023). Nanovaccines to combat drug resistance: The next-generation immunisation. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9, 64. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-023-00515-y
McCarthy, R., Gino, B., d'Entremont, P., Barari, A., & Renouf, T. S. (2020). The importance of personal protective equipment design and donning and doffing technique in mitigating infectious disease spread: A technical report. Cureus, 12(12), e12084. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.12084
Mekuye, B., & Abera, B. (2023). Nanomaterials: An overview of synthesis, classification, characterization, and applications. Nano Select, 4(8), 486–501. https://doi.org/10.1002/nano.202300038
Miletić Vukajlović, J., Drakulić, D. R., Pejić, S., Ilić, T. V., Stefanović, A., Petković, M., & Schiller, J. (2020). Increased plasma phosphatidylcholine/lysophosphatidylcholine ratios in patients with Parkinson's disease. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 34(4), e8595. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.8595
Mirzadeh-Rafie, F., Rahbarizadeh, F., Shoaei, N., Nasiri, F., Akbarizadeh, M. R., & Khatami, M. (2023). Carbon nanoparticle-based COVID-19 biosensors. Sensors International, 4, 100246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2023.100246
Mishra, N. O., Quon, A. S., Nguyen, A., Papazyan, E. K., Hao, Y., & Liu, Y. (2023). Constructing physiological defense systems against infectious disease with metal-organic frameworks: A review. ACS Applied Bio Materials, 6(8), 3052–3065. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.3c00391
Mishra, R., Minocha, S., Goel, R., Gaur, P. K., Lata, K., & Singh, R. (2025). Bioconvergence: Advancing biosensors with nanotechnology for real-time health monitoring. Bulletin of the National Research Centre, 49, 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-025-01308-4
Mok, H., & Zhang, M. (2013). Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle-based delivery systems for biotherapeutics. Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, 10(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1517/17425247.2013.747507
Mondal, S. K., Chakraborty, S., Manna, S., & Mandal, S. M. (2024). Antimicrobial nanoparticles: Current landscape and future challenges. RSC Pharmaceutics, 1(4), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4PM00032C
Nasrollahzadeh, M., Sajjadi, M., Soufi, G. J., Iravani, S., & Varma, R. S. (2020). Nanomaterials and nanotechnology-associated innovations against viral infections with a focus on coronaviruses. Nanomaterials, 10(6), 1072. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10061072
National Research Council. (2007). Biosecurity and dual-use research in the life sciences. National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11496/
Nicola, M., Alsafi, Z., Sohrabi, C., Kerwan, A., Al Jabir, A., Iosifidis, C., Agha, R. (2020). The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID 19): A review. International Journal of Surgery, 78, 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.018
Ningthoujam, R., Singh, Y. D., Babu, P. J., Tirkey, A., Pradhan, S., & Sarma, M. (2022). Nanocatalyst in remediating environmental pollutants. Chemical Physics Impact, 4, 100064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chphi.2022.100064
Oliveira, M., Mason-Buck, G., Ballard, D., Branicki, W., & Amorim, A. (2020). Biowarfare, bioterrorism and biocrime: A historical overview on microbial harmful applications. Forensic Science International, 314, 110366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110366
Pantić, I., Paunović, J., Pejić, S., Drakulić, D. R., Todorović, A., Stanković, S., Vučević, D., Cumic, J., & Radosavljević, T. (2022). Artificial intelligence approaches to the biochemistry of oxidative stress: Current state of the art. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 358, 109888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2022.109888
Parida, M. M., Dash, P. K., & Shukla, J. (2020). Advance detection technologies for select biothreat agents. In Handbook on biological warfare preparedness (pp. 83–102). Academic press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812026-2.00005-0
Patra, J. K., Das, G., Fraceto, L. F., Campos, E. V. R., Rodriguez-Torres, M. D. P., Acosta-Torres, L. S., Diaz-Torres, L. A., Grillo, R., Swamy, M. K., Sharma, S., Habtemariam, S., & Shin, H. S. (2018). Nano based drug delivery systems: Recent developments and future prospects. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 16, 71. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-018-0392-8
Perán, M., García, M. A., Lopez-Ruiz, E., Jiménez, G., & Marchal, J. A. (2013). How can nanotechnology help to repair the body? Advances in cardiac, skin, bone, cartilage and nerve tissue regeneration. Materials (Basel), 6(4), 1333–1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma6041333
Pham, X.-H., Park, S.-M., Ham, K.-M., Kyeong, S., Son, B. S., Kim, J., Hahm, E., Kim, Y.-H., Bock, S., Kim, W., Jung, S., Oh, S., Lee, S. H., Hwang, D. W., & Jun, B.-H. (2021). Synthesis and Application of Silica-Coated Quantum Dots in Biomedicine. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(18), 10116. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms221810116
Rezania, S., Darajeh, N., Rupani, P. F., Mojiri, A., Kamyab, H., & Taghavijeloudar, M. (2024). Recent Advances in the Adsorption of Different Pollutants from Wastewater Using Carbon-Based and Metal-Oxide Nanoparticles. Applied Sciences, 14(24), 11492. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411492
Robertson, A. G., & Robertson, L. J. (1995). From asps to allegations: Biological warfare in history. Military Medicine, 160(8), 369–373. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8524458
Roffey, R., Lantorp, K., Tegnell, A., & Elgh, F. (2002). Biological weapons and bioterrorism preparedness: Importance of public health awareness and international cooperation. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 8(8), 522–528. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-0691.2002.00497.x
Roh, C., & Jo, S. K. (2011). Quantitative and sensitive detection of SARS coronavirus nucleocapsid protein using quantum dots-conjugated RNA aptamer on chip. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.2721
Ross, K. A., Kelly, S., Phadke, K. S., Peroutka-Bigus, N., Fasina, O., Siddoway, A., Mallapragada, S. K., Wannemuehler, M. J., Bellaire, B. H., & Narasimhan, B. (2024). Next-generation nanovaccine induces durable immunity and protects against SARS-CoV-2. Acta Biomaterialia, 183, 318–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2024.05.048
Rowland, C. E., Brown, C. W., Delehanty, J. B., & Medintz, I. L. (2016). Nanomaterial-based sensors for the detection of biological threat agents. Materials Today, 19(8), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2016.02.018
Saha, K., Agasti, S. S., Kim, C., Li, X., & Rotello, V. M. (2012). Gold nanoparticles in chemical and biological sensing. Chemical Reviews, 112(5), 2739–2779. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr2001178
Sainz-Urruela, C., Vera-López, S., San Andrés, M. P., & Díez-Pascual, A. M. (2021). Graphene-based sensors for the detection of bioactive compounds: A review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(7), 3316. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073316
Samuel, P., Sundarraj, S., & Sudarmani, D. N. P. (2023). Nanotechnology-Based Stem Cell Therapy: Current Status and Perspectives. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109275
Sapsford, K. E., Granek, J., Deschamps, J. R., Boeneman, K., Blanco-Canosa, J. B., Dawson, P. E., Susumu, K., Stewart, M. H., & Medintz, I. L. (2011). Monitoring botulinum neurotoxin A activity with peptide-functionalized quantum dot resonance energy transfer sensors. ACS Nano, 5(4), 2687–2699. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn102997b
Saravanan, A., Deivayanai, V. C., Senthil Kumar, P., Rangasamy, G., Hemavathy, R. V., Harshana, T., Gayathri, N., & Alagumalai, K. (2022). A detailed review on advanced oxidation process in treatment of wastewater: Mechanism, challenges and future outlook. Chemosphere, 308(Part 3), 136524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136524
Sattarahmady, N., Tondro, G. H., Gholchin, M., & Heli, H. (2015). Gold nanoparticles biosensor of Brucella spp. genomic DNA: Visual and spectrophotometric detections. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 97, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2015.01.010
Shajar, F., Saleem, S., Mushtaq, N. U., Shah, W. H., Rasool, A., Padder, S. A., Tahir, I., & Rehman, R. U. (2023). Regulatory and ethical issues raised by the utilization of nanomaterials. In F. A. Sheikh, S. Majeed, & M. A. Beigh (Eds.). Interaction of nanomaterials with living cells. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2119-5_31
Shakir, S., Mirzakhil, A., Ulfat, W., Atif, A., & Mansoor, Z. G. (2025). Chemical synthesis and applications of gold nanoparticles. International Journal of Current Science Research and Review, 8(7). https://doi.org/10.47191/ijcsrr/V8-i7-83
Shyu, R.-H., Shyu, H.-F., Liu, H.-W., & Tang, S.-S. (2002). Colloidal gold-based immunochromatographic assay for detection of ricin. Toxicon, 40(3), 255–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-0101(01)00193-3
Singh, C., Srivastava, S., Ali, M. A., Gupta, T. K., Sumana, G., Srivastava, A., Mathur, R. B., & Malhotra, B. D. (2013). Carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes based biosensor for aflatoxin detection. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 185, 258–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2013.04.040
Singh, K., Singhal, S., Pahwa, S., Sethi, V. A., Sharma, S., Singh, P., Kale, R. D., Wazed Ali, S., & Sagadevan, S. (2024). Nanomedicine and drug delivery: A comprehensive review of applications and challenges. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects, 40, 101403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2024.101403
Singh, R., Sharma, A., Hong, S., & Jang, J. (2014). Electrical immunosensor based on dielectrophoretically-deposited carbon nanotubes for detection of influenza virus H1N1. Analyst, 139(21), 5415–5421. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4AN01335B
Singh, S., Dhawan, A., Karhana, S., Bhat, M., & Dinda, A. (2020). Quantum dots: An emerging tool for point-of-care testing. Micromachines, 11(11), 1058. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi11121058
Snow, J., & Giordano, J. (2019). Aerosolized nanobots: Parsing fact from fiction for health security—a dialectical view. Health Security, 17(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2018.0087
Tenchov, R., Hughes, K. J., Ganesan, M., Iyer, K. A., Ralhan, K., Lotti Diaz, L. M., Bird, R. E., Ivanov, J. M., & Zhou, Q. A. (2025). Transforming medicine: Cutting-edge applications of nanoscale materials in drug delivery. ACS Nano, 19(4), 4011–4038. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c09566
Todorović, A., Bobić, K., & Drakulić, D. (2023). Innovative and multidisciplinary approaches in detecting biological agents using contemporary technologies. In XIII International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss Days” (pp. 492–508). University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies. https://hdl.handle.net/21.15107/rcub_vinar_13426
Todorović, A., Bobić, K., Veljković, F., Pejić, S., Glumac, S., Stanković, S., Milovanović, T., Vukoje, I., Nedeljković, J., Radojević Škodrić, S., Pajović, S. B., & Drakulić, D. (2024). Comparable toxicity of surface-modified TiO₂ nanoparticles: An in vivo experimental study on reproductive toxicity in rats. Antioxidants, 13(2), 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13020231
Todorović, A., Pejić, S., Gavrilović, L., Pavlović, I., Stojiljković, V., Popović, N. M., & Pajović, S. B. (2019). Expression of antioxidant enzymes in patients with uterine polyp, myoma, hyperplasia, and adenocarcinoma. Antioxidants, 8(4), 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8040097
UN. (1925) Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol). Geneva: United Nation. https://treaties.unoda.org/t/1925
UN. (1968). Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). London, Moscow and Washington: United Nations https://treaties.unoda.org/t/npt
UN. (1972). Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction (Biological Weapons Convention). London, Moscow and Washington: United Nations. https://treaties.unoda.org/t/bwc
Uzawa, H., Ohga, K., Shinozaki, Y., Ohsawa, I., Nagatsuka, T., Seto, Y., & Nishida, Y. (2008). A novel sugar-probe biosensor for the deadly plant proteinous toxin, ricin. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 24(4), 923–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2008.07.049
Valenta Šobot, A., Drakulić, D., Todorović, A., Janić, M., Božović, A., Todorović, L., & Filipović Tričković, J. (2024). Gentiopicroside and swertiamarin induce non-selective oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxic effects in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 398, 111103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2024.111103
Vaseashta, A. (2025). Existential risks with dual-use technologies across nano, cyber, and CBRN domains. In Nanotechnological Advances in Environmental, Cyber and CBRN Security. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-2316-7_1
Veigas, B., Machado, D., Perdigão, J., Portugal, I., Couto, I., Viveiros, M., & Baptista, P. V. (2010). Au-nanoprobes for detection of SNPs associated with antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nanotechnology, 21(41), 415101. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/21/41/415101
Vignesh, A., Menaka, C., Amal, T. C., Selvakumar, S., & Vasanth, K. (2025). Exploring the dual impact of nanoparticles on human well-being: A comprehensive review of risks and benefits. Next Nanotechnology, 8, 100223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxnano.2025.100223
Wang, D.-B., Tian, B., Zhang, Z.-P., Wang, X.-Y., Fleming, J., Bi, L.-J., Yang, R.-F., & Zhang, X.-E. (2015). Detection of Bacillus anthracis spores by super-paramagnetic lateral-flow immunoassays based on “Road Closure.” Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 67, 608–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2014.09.067
Wang, H., Gu, L., Lin, Y., Lu, F., Meziani, M. J., Luo, P. G., Wang, W., Cao, L., & Sun, Y. P. (2006). Unique aggregation of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) spores by sugar-coated single-walled carbon nanotubes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 128(41), 13364–13365. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja065455o
Wang, W., Liu, Y., Shi, T., Sun, J., Mo, F., & Liu, X. (2020). Biosynthesized quantum dot for facile and ultrasensitive electrochemical and electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Analytical Chemistry, 92(3), 1598–1604. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04919
WHO. (2004). Public health response to chemical and biological events. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/public-health-response-to-biological-and-chemical-weapons-who-guidance-(2004)
WNA. (2025). Radioisotopes in medicine. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-applications/radioisotopes-research/radioisotopes-in-medicine
Yang, L., & Li, Y. (2005). Quantum dots as fluorescent labels for quantitative detection of Salmonella Typhimurium in chicken carcass wash water. Journal of Food Protection, 68(6), 1241–1245. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-68.6.1241
Yao, X., Yan, P., Tang, Q., Deng, A., & Li, J. (2013). Quantum dots based electrochemiluminescent immunosensor by coupling enzymatic amplification for ultrasensitive detection of clenbuterol. Analytica Chimica Acta, 798, 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2013.08.029
Yemets, A., Plokhovska, S., Pushkarova, N., Krasylenko, Y., & Blume, Y. (2022). Quantum dot-antibody conjugates for immunofluorescence studies of biomolecules and subcellular structures. Journal of Fluorescence, 32(5), 1713–1723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10895-022-02968-5
Zahavy, E., Heleg-Shabtai, V., Zafrani, Y., Marciano, D., & Yitzhaki, S. (2010). Application of fluorescent nanocrystals (Q-dots) for the detection of pathogenic bacteria by flow-cytometry. Journal of Fluorescence, 20, 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10895-009-0546-z
Zhang, D., Anderson, M. J., Huarng, M. C., & Alocilja, E. C. (2011). Nanoparticle-based biobarcoded DNA sensor for the rapid detection of pagA gene of Bacillus anthracis. IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology, 10(6), 1433–1438. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNANO
Zhou, J., Krishnan, N., Jiang, Y., Fang, R. H., & Zhang, L. (2021). Nanotechnology for virus treatment. Nano Today, 36, 101031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2020.101031
Zhu, S., Du, C., & Fu, Y. (2009). Localized surface plasmon resonance-based hybrid Au–Ag nanoparticles for detection of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B. Optical Materials, 31(11), 1608–1613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2009.03.009
